Alpha-Pinene is most abundant in pine trees. It binds to GABA receptors and increases airflow to the brain, which is part of the reason you feel recharged and clear-minded after a forest hike. Research demonstrates it combats depression and anxiety, reduces inflammation and tumor growth, and strengthens memory and immunity. 

Much like a stimulant, α-pinene energizes, elevates mood, and sharpens focus. But unlike a stimulant, the heightened awareness, alertness, and mood boost does not come with increased anxiety or jitters. Rather, α-pinene is as energizing and focusing as it is calming and centering. 

One of the biggest sources of α-pinene is pine trees. In fact, in Japan, when people need to clear their heads and shake off the stress of modern life, they go to nature and practice “Shinrin-yoku,'' or “forest bathing”. 

What scientists have found is that the alpha- and beta-pinene wafting from the conifers have a definite positive effect on mental health. In a 2019 study comprised of 155 participants, 37% of whom were dealing with depression, scientists found that, “A day-long session of forest bathing on a working age group demonstrated significant positive effects on mental health, especially in those with depressive tendencies.”(1) 

Another study found that α-pinene reduced plasma corticosterone levels, indicating lower physiological stress, and that the stress-reducing effects were the result of α-pinene binding to GABA receptors in the amygdala, a key area of the brain that regulates anxiety and emotional behaviors.(2)

Further research has shown α-pinene to have powerful anti-inflammatory properties(3) and to increase our natural antibiotic resistance to bacteria.(4) Additionally, α-pinene’s bronchodilating effect not only brings more oxygen to the brain, which in turn raises energy, focus, and memory levels, but also enhances the terpene’s antioxidant and neuroprotective properties.(5) Oncologists have also found α-pinene to significantly reduce the growth and size of cancerous tumors.(6) 

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1) Furuyashiki, Akemi, “A comparative study of the physiological and psychological effects of forest bathing (Shinrin-yoku) on working age people with and without depressive tendencies,” Environ Health Prev Med., 2019; 24: 46. DOI: 10.1186/s12199-019-0800-1

2) Satou, Tadaaki, “Daily Inhalation of Alpha-Pinene in Mice: Effects on Behavior and Organ Accumulation”, Phytother Res., 2014 Sep 28 (9): 1284-7. DOI: 10.1002/ptr.5105 

3)  Bae, Gi-Sang, “Protective effects of alpha-pinene in mice with cerulein-induced acute pancreatitis,” Life Sciences, Volume 91, Issues 17-18, 29 October 2012, Pages 866-871, DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2012.08.035 

4) Kovac, Jasna, “Antibiotic Resistance Modulation and Modes of Action of (-)-a-Pinene in Campylobacter Jejuni,” PLoS ONE 10(4):e0122871, April 2015, DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122871 

5) Salehi, Bahare, “Therapeutic Potential of α- and β-Pinene: A Miracle Gift of Nature,” Biomolecules, 2019 Nov, 9(11): 738, DOI: 10.3390/biom9110738 

6) Chen, Weiqiang, “Anti-tumor effect of α-pinene on human hepatoma cell lines through inducing G2/M cell cycle arrest,” J Pharmacol Sci., 2015 Mar, 127(3):332-8, DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2015.01.008 

Beta-Pinene is found in pine trees and herbs like basil and parsley. It’s known to lower stress, enhance cognition, and relieve pain and muscle tension without causing drowsiness. Research suggests that beta-pinene's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties may contribute to its cognitive-enhancing effects.

One of the most promising aspects of beta-pinene is its potential to boost mood and promote emotional balance. Studies have shown that this terpene may possess antidepressant-like properties by interacting with key receptors in the brain that regulate mood. By positively influencing these receptors, beta-pinene could help alleviate symptoms of depression and help support a more positive mood.(1)

Beta-pinene has also demonstrated stress-reducing properties. Its sedative-like activity has been shown to promote relaxation and reduce anxiety. This, plus its mood-elevating effects position beta-pinene as a promising tool for helping to manage stress and burnout.(2)

Beyond its psychological benefits, beta-pinene is a promising neuroprotective agent. Preliminary studies suggest that it may help shield brain cells from damage caused by harmful proteins linked to neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's. By reducing the clumping of these toxic proteins, beta-pinene could potentially slow or prevent cognitive decline.(3)

Lastly, beta-pinene exhibits antibacterial and antimicrobial properties, indicating its potential to support the body's natural defenses against harmful microorganisms.(4) Some studies have also suggested that beta-pinene may possess anti-cancer properties, particularly in the case of skin cancer cells.(5)

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1) Guzmán-Gutiérrez SL. Linalool and β-pinene exert their antidepressant-like activity through the monoaminergic pathway. Life Sci. 2015 May 1;128:24-9. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2015.02.021. Epub 2015 Mar 11. PMID: 25771248.

2) Guzmán-Gutiérrez SL,. Antidepressant activity of Litsea glaucescens essential oil: identification of β-pinene and linalool as active principles. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012 Sep 28;143(2):673-9. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.07.026. Epub 2012 Jul 31. PMID: 22867633.

3) Laws, JS 3rd.. Characterizing cannabis-prevalent terpenes for neuroprotection reveal a role for α and β-pinenes in mitigating amyloid β-evoked neurotoxicity and aggregation in vitro. Neurotoxicology. 2024 Jan;100:16-24.
doi: 10.1016/j.neuro.2023.12.004. Epub 2023 Dec 7. PMID: 38070653.

4) Salehi B, Upadhyay S. ‘Therapeutic Potential of α- and β-Pinene: A Miracle Gift of Nature’. Biomolecules. 2019 Nov 14;9(11):738. doi: 10.3390/biom9110738. PMID: 31739596; PMCID: PMC6920849.

5) Park BB, An JY, Park SU. Recent studies on pinene and its biological and pharmacological activities. EXCLI J. 2021 Apr 22;20:812-818. doi: 10.17179/excli2021-3714. PMID: 34177404; PMCID: PMC8222632.

Humulene appears in hops, sage, mint, and coriander. It significantly reduces pain and inflammation by blocking signaling molecules and activating the body's natural pain control system. It is currently being studied for its abilities to inhibit cancer cell growth, fight infection, and speed up healing. 

Examining humulene under the microscope reveals its remarkable powers as a potent anti-inflammatory agent, making it ideal for individuals grappling with conditions such as arthritis and other painful types of swelling. In fact, humulene stands shoulder to shoulder with dexamethasone, a widely-used steroid for treating arthritis and other painful inflammation-causing conditions.(1) 

What sets humulene apart as a pain-reducer is its ability to block inflammation-signaling molecules. Additionally, humulene actively engages ECS receptors, crucial players in pain modulation, which is how it delivers its analgesic effects.(2) This dual action positions humulene as a promising solution for pain relief, especially for those seeking pain management from a natural, non-toxic source.

Studies have also found that humulene inhibits cancer cell growth,(3) that it’s a potent antibacterial in the prevention of infection,(4) and that it promotes IL-8 protein signaling, a vital step in creating new blood vessels which helps wounds to heal faster and more efficiently.(5) 

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1) Rogerio, Alexandre P., “Preventive and therapeutic anti-inflammatory properties of the sesquiterpene α-humulene in experimental airways allergic inflammation,” British Journal of Pharmacology, 16 October 2009, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00177.x

2) Liktor-Busa, Erika, “Analgesic Potential of Terpenes Derived from Cannabis Sativa,” Pharmacological Reviews, October 2021, 73(4), pp. 1269-1297, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1124/pharmrev.120.000046 

3) Legault, Jean, “Potentiating effect of β-caryophyllene on anticancer activity of α-humulene, isocaryophyllene and paclitaxel,” Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Volume 59, Issue 12, December 2007, pp. 1643–1647, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1211/jpp.59.12.0005 

4) Jang, Hye-in, “Antibacterial and antibiofilm effects of α-humulene against Bacteroides fragilis,” Can J Microbiol, June 2020, 66(6), pp. 389-399, DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2020-0004 

5) Satsu, Hideo, “Regulation of interleukin-8 secretion in human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells by α-humulene,” BioFactors, 2004, 21(1-4), pp. 137-139, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/biof.552210127 

Limonene gives citrus fruits like oranges, lemons, and limes their bright, uplifting scent. This highly bioavailable terpene crosses the blood-brain barrier, delivering energizing, mood-elevating, and focus-enhancing effects, as well as reducing stress and inflammation and supporting immunity. It is currently being studied for its cholesterol and blood-sugar lowering properties. 

Research has highlighted limonene's multifaceted therapeutic potential, focusing on its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic properties.(1) Additional studies show it can boost the immune system and help control the spread of certain cancers.(2) 

In 2014, a clinical study found that limonene significantly reduced stress in lab mice.(3) In studying its antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, a 2006 study observed that limonene is a highly effective tool for treating chronic inflammation.(4) A powerful antioxidant, limonene has also been recognized for its ability to protect cells from oxidative stress.(5) 

Studies have also shown that limonene may contribute to cholesterol reduction by lowering triglycerides, increasing "good" cholesterol, and reducing blood sugar levels.(6) Further evidence suggests that it could aid in weight loss by influencing blood sugar and lipids associated with metabolic syndrome.(7)

In sum, Limonene is a versatile terpene with numerous potential health benefits, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, immune-boosting, and anti-cancer properties. As research continues to uncover its therapeutic potential, limonene may prove to be a valuable tool in promoting overall health and well-being.

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1) Vieira, A.J., “Limone: Aroma of innovation in health and disease,” Chemico-Biological Interactions, Vol 283, 1 March 2018, pp. 97-106, DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2018.02.007

2) Miller, Jessica A., “D-Limonene: A bioactive food component from citrus and evidence for a potential role in breast cancer prevention and treatment,” Oncology Reviews 5(1):31-42, October 2011, DOI: 10.1007/s12156-010-0066-8 

3) d’Alessio, Patrizia A., “Anti-stress effects of d-limonene and its metabolite perillyl alcohol,” Rejuvenation Res., 2014 April, 17(2), pp. 145-149, DOI: 10.1089/rej.2013.1515 

4) Mizrahi, Boaz, “Citrus oil and MgCl2 as antibacterial and anti-inflammatory agents,” J Periodontol, 2006 June, 77(6), pp. 963-968, DOI: 10.1902/jop.2006.050278 

5) Bacanli, Merve, “The antioxidant and antigenotoxic properties of citrus phenolics limonene and naringin,” Food Chem Toxicol., 2015 July, 81, pp. 160-170, DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.04.015 

6) Costa, Celso A.R.A., “Citrus aurantium L. essential oil exhibits anxiolytic-like activity mediated by 5-HT1A-receptors and reduces cholesterol after repeated oral treatment,” BMC Complement Altern Med., 2013, 13:42, DOI: 10.1186/1472-6882-13-42 

7) Jing, Li, “Preventive and ameliorating effects of citrus D-limonene on dyslipidemia and hyperglycemia in mice with high-fat diet-induced obesity,” European Journal of Pharmacology, Vol. 715, Issues 1-3, September 2013, pp. 46-45, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.06.022 

Valencene is found in citrus fruits like Valencia oranges, from which it gets its name. The latest research shows that it fights inflammation, supports joint health, and shows promise in managing arthritis symptoms. It is currently being studied for its heart and brain health supporting properties. 

Found in citrus fruits like the Valencia orange, from which it gets its name, the terpene valencene has long been used in foods, beverages, and fragrances. But only very recently has science begun to map out the full potential of its health benefits. The results from these early studies have uncovered a promising therapeutic profile, ranging from potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects to neuro- and cardioprotective support.

In 2021, scientists observed that valencene fights inflammation in two unique ways. First, it reduces levels of inflammatory chemicals. Second, it blocks the activity of enzymes that create inflammation-promoting compounds. By tackling inflammation from both angles, valencene offers a natural and highly effective way to manage inflammation.(1)

In 2023, researchers observed that valencene reduced inflammation and cartilage breakdown in mice with arthritis, showing promise for managing osteoarthritis symptoms and slowing disease progression.(2)

Another recent in vivo study revealed valencene's cardioprotective properties, showing that treating rats with valencene after they suffered heart attacks reduced cardiac damage, inflammation, and harmful changes like cardiac hypertrophy (enlargement) and oxidative stress. It also limited the size of the infarcted area of the heart. While more research is needed, this study suggests valencene could be a promising natural compound for supporting daily cardiovascular health and a therapeutic aid in post-heart attack recovery.(3)

Lastly, valencene has demonstrated promising potential as a neuroprotective. In a 2022 study, computer models predicted its ability to block enzymes linked to neurological disorders, while in vitro experiments showed that it protected brain cells against the toxic damage of free radicals. While more research is needed, this study highlights valencene's nutraceutical potential for supporting brain health and preventing neurodegenerative diseases.(4)

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1) de Oliveira, M.R.C., de Lima Silva, M.G., Alcântara, I.S. et al. Biological activities of the essential oil from the leaves of Lantana montevidensis (Spreng) Briq. in mice. Environ Dev Sustain 23, 14958–14981 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01281-8.

2) Chen, Sheng, “An in vitro and in vivo study: Valencene protects cartilage and alleviates the progression of osteoarthritis by anti-oxidative stress and anti-inflammatory effects,” International Immunopharmacology, Volume 123, 2023, 110726, ISSN 1567-5769, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intimp.2023.110726.

3) Prince, S. Shervin, “Valencene post-treatment exhibits cardioprotection via inhibiting cardiac hypertrophy, oxidative stress, nuclear factor- κB inflammatory pathway, and myocardial infarct size in isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarcted rats; A molecular study,” European Journal of Pharmacology, Volume 927, 2022, 174975, ISSN 0014-2999, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2022.174975.

4) Sánchez-Martínez, José David, “Neuroprotective potential of terpenoid-rich extracts from orange juice by-products obtained by pressurized liquid extraction,” Food Chemistry: X, Volume 13, 2022, 100242, ISSN 2590-1575, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2022.100242.

Linalool is the active ingredient in lavender and its essential oils, known for its soothing effects on the mind and body. Clinical studies have shown linalool to: lower pain and swelling, reduce anxiety and depression, promote relaxation, lower blood pressure, and alleviate menopausal hot flashes.

Linalool is the active ingredient in lavender, a plant long prized for its soothing effects on the mind and body. 

In 2006, scientists discovered that linalool increases the production of adenosine, the hormone that reduces pain and helps us fall asleep.(1) Researchers soon found that linalool noticeably lowers stress and depression levels(2) and activates the body’s parasympathetic response (a.k.a., the “rest and digest” system), which regulates stress in the immune system.(3) 

Another way linalool promotes calm and pain relief is by reducing pain perception. It does so by inhibiting the neurotransmission of pain signals(4) and decreasing the excitability of the spinal cord cells that transmit pain signals to the brain.(5) Linalool is such a powerful soother that in a 2007 study scientists observed that patients whose rooms were equipped with lavender aromatherapy required significantly less morphine after surgery to manage their pain.(6) 

These findings underscore linalool’s potential as a complementary approach to managing mental and physical well-being, offering a promising alternative or adjunct to conventional treatments.

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1) Peana, Alessandra T., “Involvement of adenosine A1 and A2A receptors in (-)-linalool-induced antinociception,” Life Sci., 2006 Apr 18, 78(21), pp. 2471-2474, DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2005.10.025

2) Guzmán-Guitiérrez, S.L., “Antidepressant activity of Litsea glaucescens essential oil: Identification of β-pinene and linalool as active principles, J Ethnopharmacol,  2012 Sep 28, DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2012.07.026

3) Nakamura, Akio, “Stress Repression in Restrained Rats by (R)-(−)-Linalool Inhalation and Gene Expression Profiling of Their Whole Blood Cells,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 2009, 57(12), pp. 5480-5485, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/jf900420g 

4) Re, L., “Linalool modifies the nicotinic receptor-ion channel kinetics at the mouse neuromuscular junction,” Pharmacol Res., 2000 Aug, 42(2), pp. 177-182, DOI: 10.1006/phrs.2000.0671 

5) Leal-Cardoso, José Henrique, “Linalool blocks excitability in peripheral nerves and voltage-dependent Na+ current in dissociated dorsal root ganglia neurons,” European Journal of Pharm., Oct 2010, 645(1-3), pp. 86-93, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.07.014 

6) Kim, Jung T., “Treatment with lavender aromatherapy in the post-anesthesia care unit reduces opioid requirements of morbidly obese patients undergoing laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding,” Obes Surg., 2007 Jul, 17(7), pp. 920-925, DOI: 10.1007/s11695-007-9170-7 

Myrcene is found in hops, mangoes, and lemongrass. At low doses (less than 5 mgs), it tends to produce energizing, focusing, and mildly euphoric effects. At higher doses (over 5 mgs), it produces relaxing sedative effects. Research shows that it blocks pain signals, reduces inflammation, and activates natural opioid release in the brain. Oncologists are currently investigating its ability to induce cancer cell death.

Myrcene offers several everyday benefits that can improve overall well-being. Its sedative properties can help individuals who struggle with sleep disorders, anxiety, or stress by promoting relaxation and calmness, leading to better cognitive function, mood, and physical health.(1) 

Moreover, myrcene's analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties can help alleviate various types of pain, from post-workout recovery to chronic pain conditions like arthritis and fibromyalgia,(2) making it a potential natural alternative to prescription pain medications.

Myrcene's mechanisms of action are diverse. It interacts with the central nervous system, particularly the GABA receptors, to promote relaxation and reduce anxiety. Additionally, myrcene increases the permeability of the blood-brain barrier, allowing for greater absorption of cannabinoids like THC and CBD,(3) thus enhancing their respective therapeutic benefits through the "entourage effect".

Myrcene also induces antinociception––the body's natural ability to reduce the perception of pain—by interacting with the TRPV1 and opiate systems.(4) By doing so, myrcene increases the production of natural opioids in the brain and spinal cord and reduces inflammation in cells surrounding nerve endings.(5)

Lastly, in studying its anticancer properties, myrcene has shown great potential. It not only blocks the cancer-causing effects of aflatoxins,(6) it also induces anti-metastatic activity which activates cell death in the tumorous cells.(7) 

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1) Russo, Ethan B., “Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects,” British Journal of Pharmacology, 2011 Aug, 163(7), pp. 1344-1364, 

DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01238.x

2) Rufino, Ana Teresa, “Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory, anti-catabolic and pro-anabolic effects of E-caryophyllene, myrcene and limonene in a cell model of osteoarthritis,” Eur J Pharmacol, 2015 Mar 5, 750, pp. 141-150, DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.01.018

3) Richter, Gary, “Chapter 28 - Cannabis sativa: an overview,” Nutraceuticals, 2021, pp. 603-624, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821038-3.00038-0

4) Rao, V.S., “Effect of myrcene on nociception in mice,” 1990 Dec, 42(12), pp. 877-888, DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1990.tb07046.x 

5) Jansen, C., “Myrcene and terpene regulation of TRPV1,” Channels, Aug 2019, 13(1), pp. 344-366, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19336950.2019.1654347 

6) De-Oliveira, Ana C.A.X., “In vitro inhibition of CYP2B1 monooxygenase by β-myrcene and other monoterpenoid compounds,” Toxicology Letters, 16 June 1997, 92(1), pp. 39-46, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4274(97)00034-9 

7) Lee, Jeong-Ho, “Anti-invasive effect of -myrcene, a component of the essential oil from Pinus koraiensis cones, in metastatic MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells, Journal of Korean Society for Applied Biological Chemistry, 12 May 2015, Volume 58, pp. 563-569, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13765-015-0081-3

Nerolidol is sourced from citrus peels, tea tree oil, and jasmine. Early studies indicate promising neuroprotective properties, as it preserves memory chemicals and appears to hinder Alzheimer’s-related protein changes. Current research suggests nerolidol has the potential to bolster cognition with age.

Nerolidol has been the subject of numerous studies investigating its potential benefits for mental well-being and brain health. Research has consistently highlighted nerolidol's calming and anxiety-reducing properties, making it a promising option for individuals seeking natural ways to reduce stress and promote relaxation.

In addition to its effects on mood, nerolidol has been shown to possess potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. (1) These qualities suggest that nerolidol may offer neuroprotective benefits, helping to shield the brain from the damaging effects of oxidative stress and inflammation, which are known contributors to age-related cognitive decline.(2)

Furthermore, nerolidol has been found to inhibit the breakdown of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in memory, learning, and overall brain function. By supporting healthy acetylcholine levels, nerolidol may help to maintain cognitive performance and reduce the risk of age-related neurological issues.(3)

While more research is needed to fully understand the extent of nerolidol's neuroprotective potential, the current body of evidence points to its promise as a natural compound capable of promoting mental well-being and brain health. As interest in natural approaches to wellness continues to grow, nerolidol is likely to remain a focus of scientific inquiry and a potential tool for those seeking to optimize their cognitive function and overall quality of life via natural, non-toxic supplements.

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1) Chan WK, Tan LT, Chan KG, Lee LH, Goh BH. Nerolidol: A Sesquiterpene Alcohol with Multi-Faceted Pharmacological and Biological Activities. Molecules. 2016 Apr 28;21(5):529. doi: 10.3390/molecules21050529. PMID: 27136520; PMCID: PMC6272852.

2) Taheri, Peyman, “Neuroprotective effects of nerolidol against Alzheimer's disease in Wistar rats,” Drug Dev Res., 2022 Dec, 83(8), pp. 1858-1866, DOI: 10.1002/ddr.22002

3) De Carvalho, Rusbene Bruno Fonesca, “Nerolidol and its Pharmacological Application in Treating Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Review,” Recent Pat Biotechnol., 2018, 12(3), pp. 158-168, DOI: 10.2174/1872208312666171206123805

Beta-Caryophyllene shows up in everything from black pepper, rosemary, and oregano to ylang-ylang, cinnamon, and hops. It directly activates CB2 receptors to reduce inflammation, block pain signals, and restore neurotransmitter balance. It is currently being studied for its promising neuroprotective and anti-aging effects. 

Beta-caryophyllene (BCP) is the only terpene yet known that binds directly to cannabinoid receptors, specifically CB2 receptors. This makes it a dietary cannabinoid, meaning it’s the only terpene that can directly tap the full therapeutic potential of the endocannabinoid system. Thus, beta-caryophyllene is more potent, efficient, and able to provide targeted, multi-pathway benefits and relief. 

When used for pain, BCP helps on three fronts. First, it reduces swelling. Second, it amplifies the effectiveness of any other pain medications being used,(1) Third, by stimulating CB2 receptors it activates the release of endorphins, which bind to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, thus blocking the transmission of pain signals.(2) 

A powerful stress-reducer, beta-caryophyllene works directly with the endocannabinoid system to modulate mood and restore balance via key neurotransmitters (GABA, serotonin, dopamine, and glutamate). In fact, in a 2017 animal study researchers found that through a similar method of action BCP can also improve depressive symptoms and reduce compulsive behaviors.(3) 

Beta-caryophyllene also exhibits promising neuroprotective and life-extending properties. Researchers found it reduced oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, replenished antioxidants, and protected dopamine neurons in rats with Parkinson’s Disease.(4) And as a potential geroprotector, a 2014 study using nematode worms found that BCP reduced free radicals and oxidative damage in the worms’ cells, increasing their lifespans by over 22%.(5)

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1) Varga, Zoltan V., “β-Caryophyllene protects against alcoholic steatohepatitis by attenuating inflammation and metabolic dysregulation in mice,” British Journal of Pharmacology, 2018 Jan, 175(2), pp. 320-334, DOI: 10.1111/bph.13722

2) Katsuyama, S., “Involvement of peripheral cannabinoid and opioid receptors in β-caryophyllene-induced antinociception,” European Journal of Pain, 2013 May, 17(5), pp. 664-675, DOI: 10.1002/j.1532-2149.2012.00242.x 

3) Bahi, Amine, “β-Caryophyllene, a CB2 receptor agonist produces multiple behavioral changes relevant to anxiety and depression in mice,” Physiol Behav., 2014 Aug, 135, pp. 119-124, DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.06.003 

4) Ohja, Shreesh, “β-Caryophyllene, a phytocannabinoid attenuates oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, glial activation, and salvages dopaminergic neurons in a rat model of Parkinson disease,” Mol Cell Biochem., 2016 Jul, 418(1-2), pp. 59-70, DOI: 10.1007/s11010-016-2733-y 

5) Pant, Aakanksha, “Beta-caryophyllene modulates expression of stress response genes and mediates longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans,” Exp Gerontol, 2014 Sep, 57, pp. 81-95, DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2014.05.007 

Terpineol is found in over 150 plants, including cannabis, lilacs, pine trees, and citrus fruits. It exhibits anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. Research suggests potential therapeutic benefits in pain management, inflammation reduction, and neuroprotection. Terpineol shows promise in both aromatherapy and medical applications.

Terpineol is found in numerous plant-derived essential oils, including tea tree oil, citrus fruits, and cannabis. (1) This versatile compound has garnered attention for its wide range of potential therapeutic benefits.

Studies have demonstrated terpineol's significant anti-inflammatory properties. Research shows that terpineol inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 in human macrophages.(2) Another study found that α-terpineol, a specific isomer, reduced inflammation in oral buccal cells by lowering the production of IL-6 receptors. (3)

Terpineol also exhibits potent analgesic effects. Researchers reported that α-terpineol demonstrated both peripheral and central analgesic properties in various mouse models of pain. Importantly, these effects were observed without significant motor impairment. (4)

The compound shows promise in other therapeutic areas as well. Studies highlighted terpineol's antimicrobial properties against various bacteria. (5), (6) Additionally, research found that terpineol had neuroprotective effects, improving learning and memory in rats after brain injury. (7)

Terpineol's antioxidant potential has also been noted, with research suggesting it could help prevent oxidative stress-related conditions. (8)

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1) Russo, E. B., & Marcu, J. (2017). Cannabis Pharmacology: The Usual Suspects and a Few Promising Leads. In D. Kendall & S.P.H. Alexander (Eds.), Cannabinoid Pharmacology (Advances in Pharmacology, Vol. 80, pp. 90-91). Academic Press.

2) Nogueira MN, Aquino SG, Rossa Junior C, Spolidorio DM. Terpinen-4-ol and alpha-terpineol (tea tree oil components) inhibit the production of IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-10 on human macrophages. Inflamm Res. 2014 Sep;63(9):769-78. doi: 10.1007/s00011-014-0749-x. Epub 2014 Jun 20. PMID: 24947163.

3) Held S, Schieberle P, Somoza V. Characterization of alpha-terpineol as an anti-inflammatory component of orange juice by in vitro studies using oral buccal cells. J Agric Food Chem. 2007 Oct 3;55(20):8040-6. doi: 10.1021/jf071691m. Epub 2007 Sep 15. PMID: 17867636.

4) Quintans-Júnior, L. J., Oliveira, M. G. B., Santana, M. F., Santana, M. T., Guimarães, A. G., Siqueira, J. S., … Almeida, R. N. (2011). α-Terpineol reduces nociceptive behavior in mice. Pharmaceutical Biology, 49(6), 583–586. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2010.529616

5) Li, L., Shi, C., Yin, Z., Jia, R., Peng, L., Kang, S., et al. (2014). Antibacterial activity of alpha- terpineol may induce morphostructural alterations in Escherichia coli. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 45(4), 1409–1413.

6) Miyamoto, T., Okimoto, T., & Kuwano, M. (2014). Chemical composition of the essential oil of mastic gum and their antibacterial activity against drug-resistant Helicobacter pylori. Natural Products and Bioprospecting, 4(4), 227–231. http:/doi.org/10.1007/s13659- 014-0033-3.

7) Moghimi, M., Parvardeh, S., Zanjani, T. M., & Ghafghazi, S. (2016). Protective effect of alpha-terpineol against impairment of hippocampal synaptic plasticity and spatial memory following transient cerebral ischemia in rats. The Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, 19(9), 960–969.

8) Bicas JL, Neri-Numa IA, Ruiz AL, De Carvalho JE, Pastore GM. Evaluation of the antioxidant and antiproliferative potential of bioflavors. Food Chem Toxicol. 2011 Jul;49(7):1610-5. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2011.04.012. Epub 2011 Apr 19. PMID: 21540069.

Terpinolene is found in apples, sage, and pine, as well as around 10% of cannabis strains. It's associated with energizing effects and potential antioxidant, anticancer, and anxiety-reducing properties. Some users report focus enhancement. Current studies are investigating its effects on brain health, heart disease prevention, and pain management.

Terpinolene is found in various plants, including cannabis, apples, sage, and pine. While relatively rare as a dominant terpene in cannabis, appearing in about 10% of strains, it's associated with energizing and creative effects. (1)

Research suggests terpinolene may have several potential therapeutic benefits. It exhibits antioxidant properties, which could help prevent LDL oxidation and potentially reduce the risk of atherogenesis and coronary heart disease.(2) Studies have also shown anticancer and antiproliferative effects, particularly against brain tumor cells.(3)

Terpinolene demonstrates a dual action in brain cells: it slows the growth of cancer cells while increasing antioxidant capacity in normal neurons at lower doses.(3) However, higher doses may increase oxidative stress.(3)

In animal studies, inhaled terpinolene produced sedative effects in mice.(4) Interestingly, human reports often associate terpinolene-dominant cannabis strains with increased energy,(1) highlighting the need for more research to understand its effects in humans.

Recent studies suggest terpinolene may have anxiety-reducing properties mediated through CB2 receptors.(5) It also shows promise in enhancing the effects of certain pain medications, potentially offering a path to more effective pain management.(6)

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1) Lewis MA, Russo EB, Smith KM. Pharmacological Foundations of Cannabis Chemovars. Planta Med. 2018 Mar;84(4):225-233. doi: 10.1055/s-0043-122240. Epub 2017 Nov 21. PMID: 29161743.

2) Grassmann J, Hippeli S, Spitzenberger R, Elstner EF. The monoterpene terpinolene from the oil of Pinus mugo L. in concert with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene effectively prevents oxidation of LDL. Phytomedicine. 2005 Jun;12(6-7):416-23. doi: 10.1016/j.phymed.2003.10.005. PMID: 16008117.

3) Aydin E, Türkez H, Taşdemir S. Anticancer and antioxidant properties of terpinolene in rat brain cells. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol. 2013 Sep;64(3):415-24. doi: 10.2478/10004-1254-64-2013-2365. PMID: 24084350.

4) Ito K, Ito M. The sedative effect of inhaled terpinolene in mice and its structure-activity relationships. J Nat Med. 2013 Oct;67(4):833-7. doi: 10.1007/s11418-012-0732-1. Epub 2013 Jan 22. PMID: 23339024.

5) Johnson AL, Verbitsky R, Hudson J, Dean R, Hamilton TJ. Cannabinoid type-2 receptors modulate terpene induced anxiety-reduction in zebrafish. Biomed Pharmacother. 2023 Dec;168:115760. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115760. Epub 2023 Oct 20. PMID: 37865998.

6) Nuutinen T. Medicinal properties of terpenes found in Cannabis sativa and Humulus lupulus. Eur J Med Chem. 2018 Sep 5;157:198-228. doi: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2018.07.076. Epub 2018 Aug 4. PMID: 30096653.